ТЕОРИЯ ЯЗЫКА

The Syllabic Structure of the English Language

-The problem of definition of a syllable
-Functional characteristics
-Classification
-Some theories
-Syllable division

The problem of definition of a syllable

The basic phonological elements are phonemes the human intercourse is actualized in syllables

A syllable is one or more speech sounds, forming a single uninterrupted unit of utterance, which may be a whole word or a commonly recognized subdivision of a word.

( J. Kenyon).

4 Levels of Syllabic Analysis

The syllable is a complicated phenomenon and it can be studied on four levels:

Acoustic
level

Syllable is characterized by the force of the utterance (accent), pitch of the voice, sonority and length ( prosodic features)

Articulatory level

The articulatory energy constituting the syllable results from the combined action of the power, vibrator, resonator and obstructor mechanisms

Phonologically level

Syllable is regarded and defined in terms of its structure and functions. Phonotactics studies all possible phoneme combinations of a given language.

Auditory
level

Syllable is the smallest unit of perception. The listener first identifies the whole of the syllable and after that the sounds contained in it.

Auditory level
Syllable is the smallest unit of perception. The listener first identifies the whole of the syllable and after that the sounds contained in it.

The perception of the syllable is determined by the structure of our mother tongue.
eg. sticks – 4 syllables for the Japanese (CV syllabic structure)
In Russian open type of syllable is more common (78% syllables) than closed syllables of English
eg. English city (closed) Russian си-ти (open)

Syllables vs Syllabographs

Syllables in writing are called syllabographs (Balinskaya)
They do not always coincide with syllables in pronunciation
syllabographs
na-me (2)
rhythm (1)

Syllabographs are important for reading rules

phonetic syllables
neim (1)
rIDm (2)

Let's practice!

Functional characteristics of the syllable

constitutive

distinctive

recognative (identificatory)

Constitutive function

In syllables relations between the distinctive features of phonemes and their allophones are realized

Syllables constitute words through the combination of their prosodic features:

loudness
pitch
length

Syllable is a specific minimal structure of both segmental and supra segmental features

Distinctive function

Syllables can distinguish between words or forms based on their structure.

Realization of the phoneme in different positions in a word results in different allophones

MINIMAL PAIRS

IN WORDS

lightening 
|ˈlaɪ |t(ə)n| ɪŋ|
lightning
|ˈlaɪt | nɪŋ|
IN WORD COMBINATIONS

an aim - a name
An ice house - a nice house
IN SENTENCES

I saw her eyes - I saw her rise

Recognative (identificatory) function

The listener can understand the exact meaning of the utterance only if he perceives the correct syllabic boundary.

eg. my train - might rain 

Teaching not only the correct pronunciation of sounds but also the observation of the correct syllable division is vital

Answer the questions

What functional characteristics does a syllable have?
Read the minimal pairs correctly:

Learn more

Classification and structure of syllables

1. From the point of syllable division
• open uncovered (V) e.g. "a"
• closed uncovered (VC) e.g. "up", "or"
• covered open (CV) e.g. "go", "do"
• covered closed (CVC) e.g. "cat", "dog"

2. From the prosodic points of length, pitch and force (accent) of utterance
a) length: short and long
"kit" ------ "fleece"
b) force: stressed and unstressed
The stressed syllable: "TAble" — the first part of "TA" sounds louder and stronger. The uncharacteristic syllable: "taBLE" — the second part of "ble" sounds quieter.
c) pitch: even pitch and uneven pitch

Structure of syllables

“

A syllable is like a little “unit” of sound in a word. Every syllable has a specific structure, and this structure can be described using a few simple parts. Here’s how it works:

1. Peak (Crest)

This is the most important part of the syllable, where the sound is strongest. The peak is usually formed by a vowel (like "a," "e," "i," "o," "u") or by certain special consonants called sonorants (like "l," "m," "n").

Example: In the word "cat," the peak is the vowel "a." It’s the strongest part of the syllable.
Another example: In the word "film," the peak is the sonorant "l."

2. Slopes

The consonants that come before and after the peak are called slopes. These are the consonants that “surround” the peak and form the other parts of the syllable.

Example: In the word "cat," the slopes are "c" and "t." They surround the vowel peak "a."
Another example: In the word "plant," the slopes are "pl" and "nt," surrounding the peak "a."

3. Onset

The onset is any consonants at the beginning of the syllable, before the peak.
Example: In "cat," the onset is the consonant "c."
Another example: In "dog," the onset is "d."
In "split," the onset is "spl" (up to 3 consonants!).

4. Coda

The coda is any consonants that come at the end of the syllable, after the peak.
Example: In "cat," the coda is the consonant "t."
In "split," the coda is "t."

IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER
In English a word can begin with a vowel or consonants (max.3) eg. splash, screen

In English a word can end with a vowel or consonants (max.4) eg. twelfths, texts, prompts

PRACTISE

Some theories on syllable formation

Four theories:

Expiratory theory (R.H. Stetson)

Each syllable corresponds to a single expiration. The boundary between syllables is the point of the weakest expiration.
Sonority (Otto Jespersen)

The concept of sonority.
There are as many syllables in the word as there are peaks of sonority (prominence).
Theory of muscular tension (L.V. Shcherba)

Syllable may be defined as an arc of muscular (articulatory) tension.
The tension of articulation (energy) increases within the range of prevocalic consonants and decreases within the range of postvocalic consonants.
Loudness theory (N.I. Zhinkin)

Syllable can be thought of as the arc of loudness which correlates with the arc of articulatory effort on the speech production level since variations in loudness are due to the work of all the speech mechanisms.

The expiratory theory of the American psychologist R.H. Stetson

(associated a syllable with breathing, with a chest-pulse)

1

Was subsequently refuted

It was proved that we inhale at the finish of the syntagma or respiratory group (and not a syllable) and during speaking, the tremors during exhalation correspond to strongly stressed syllables, that is, the beginning of the rhythmic group, and not the beginning of the syllable;
2

The connection of speech with breathing is obvious

But the chest-pulse do not correspond to the syllables
3

Drawbacks

We can easily pronounce a number of words with a single expiration (or articulatory effort)
eg. seeing
on the contrary
eg. star (two expiratory pulses, yet, the word is monosyllabic)

O. Jespersen's sonority theory

There are as many syllables in the word as there are peaks of sonority (prominence)

1

Vowels, especially open ones, are the most sonorous segments of speech

Therefore they form the top of a syllable, its core, while consonants are grouped around a vowel as the "sonority" (sonority) decreases and thereby determine the boundaries of syllables.
2

Ranking of speech sounds:

Open vowels, close vowels, sonorants, voiced fricatives, voiced plosives, voiceless fricatives, voiceless plosives
3

Drawbacks

In terms of this theory an English word "stops" should have 3 syllables

L. V. Shcherba's theory of muscular tension

(A syllable is considered as an arc of muscular tension with a vowel at the top of this arc)

1
A consonant is stronger where it adjoins a vowel, especially a stressed one, and weaker at the syllable boundary.
- an aim [эn 'eim] | а name [э 'neim]
- the pronunciation of the borderline [n] changes: in the first case, it is strong at the beginning and weak at the end, and in the second — it is weak at the beginning and strong at the end.
2
There is a decrease in intensity at the syllable boundary.
The same decrease in intensity was found inside double consonants at the syllable boundary (these consonants are called geminates, i.e. double):
- penknife ['pennaif].
3

This theory defines syllables only on production level. Can be called DYNAMIC

An acoustic sign of intensity is involved in distinguishing the core and the syllable boundary

N.I.Zhinkin's loudness theory

(considered the syllable from the point of view of perception as an arc of loudness)

1

The proper quality of vowels ensures the sound of speech

The vowel is an obligatory element of the syllable, its core, and the number of syllables corresponds to the wave-like increase and decay of sonority with a vowel at the peak of each wave.
2

There is a decrease in intensity at the syllable boundary.

which correlates with the arc of articulatory effort on the speech production level since variations in loudness are due to the work of all the speech mechanisms.
3

This theory seems to combine articulatory and perceptive levels of analysis

Let's check!

SYLLABLE DIVISION

The main rules

1. Morphological principle in affixal words:

In words with prefixes and suffixes, such as "dis/place," "un/able," "mis/use," we can see where the root begins and ends, as well as the affixes.
2. Inside intervocalic consonant preceded by short stressed vowels:

If there is a consonant sound between two vowels, and a short stressed vowel precedes it, the boundary between syllables is after that consonant.

Examples:
- 'mʌn-i (money)
- 'sɪt-i (сity)
3. Before intervocalic consonant preceded by long stressed vowels and stressed diphthongs:

If a long stressed vowel precedes the consonant, the boundary will be before that consonant.

Examples:
'leɪ-di (la/dy)
'leɪ-tə (la/ter).

4. In case of a syllable forming sonorant l,m,n the boundary is inside the consonant preceded by short stressed vowels:

If l, m, or n form a syllable after a short stressed vowel, the boundary is within that consonant.

Example:
'lɪt.-əl (lit/tle)
5. In case of a syllable forming sonorant l,m,n the boundary is before the consonant preceded by long stressed vowels and stressed diphthongs:

If l, m, or n come after a long stressed vowel, the boundary will be before that consonant.

Examples:
'teɪ-bəl (ta/ble)
'ga:-dn (gar/den)
6. English diphthongs are monosyllabic (forms a single syllable) , but English triphthongs are disyllabic (can be articulated in a way that makes it sound like two syllables):

Examples:
' saɪ-əns (sci/ence)
' flaʊ-ər (flow/er)
' taɪə-d (Tir/ed)
.

7. After the unstressed vowel (short, long or diphthong) if it is followed by a single consonant sound:

If there is one consonant sound after an unstressed vowel, the boundary will be before that consonant.

Examples:
ə - 'ɡəʊ (a/go)
aɪ-'dɪə (idea)
8. In the intervocalic 2 consonant cluster the boundary is before it if the cluster occurs at the beginning of English words:

The term "intervocalic" refers to the position of consonants between two vowel sounds. When discussing a "2 consonant cluster" it means that two consonants are grouped together between vowels. It means that the boundary is before that cluster.

Example:
ə-'ɡriː (a/gree)

The boundary between 2 consonant cluster if the cluster never occurs at the beginning of English words:

Example:
əd-'mɪt (ad/mit)
9. In the intervocalic 3 consonant cluster the boundary is debatable:

Example:
ˈeks - trə (ex/tra)

Syllable division: dictionaries

Most of the knowledge about syllable phonetics has been acquired through experimental methods. Experimental studies have verified the means of syllable division: the role of prosodic features such as duration and intensity has been established.

In addition to experimentally determined data, the type of syllable division reflected in orthoepic dictionaries depends on the phonological views of the dictionary compiler.

For example, two principles are reflected in the dictionaries of Longman Publishing (J. Wells) (maximum consonants in the stressed syllable): lady ['leid-i] and in the Cambridge dictionary (D. Jones) (maximum consonants at the beginning of the syllable): ['lei-di].

Both dictionaries agree on:
• the assignment of a single consonant at the boundary of two syllables to the stressed short vowel, i.e., to the first syllable: pit-y, Kitt-y, bett-er;
• the division of compound words according to their morphological structure: hardware.

PRACTICE

Complete the task using the rules

Determine the number of syllables and find their boundaries in the following words. Write the English words in transcription. Mark the syllable division with a hyphen. Explain your reasoning.

1.catfish, 2.carpet, 3.nature, 4.eagle, 5.metal, 6. mile, 7.mileage, 8.funny, 9.proper.

Let's check!

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